History - Exemplification in subjects - A Coherent Pedagogy for Secondary Schools

History
A History Lesson in Key Stage 3

Although no one history lesson can ever be like all the others, it is important to ensure that certain key features reappear regularly and reliably in most lessons.

These key features are not there merely to satisfy an anonymous expert's view of an "ideal" lesson structure.

They need to be there in order to address particular difficulties faced by many pupils learning history, and to provide them with the strategies and confidence to make progress.

Most pupils are both interested in and confident with describing the chronology of historical events and the key features of historical periods.

Many of them struggle, however, with the interpretation of historical sources and ascribing more adult notions of political motivation to historical characters.

As a result, too often, they find it difficult to use their historical knowledge selectively and in context in order to make and justify historical arguments.

They are, in general, confident with historical facts but tentative, colloquial and imprecise when engaging in speculative discussion.

The structure of a typical history lesson is designed to recognise these common difficulties and address them.

The seating plan for the lesson is crucial. A horseshoe shaped layout of the desks enables pupils to face one another, listen to the comments of their classmates and respond directly to them where appropriate.

Pupils can all see the teacher easily during exposition but, equally importantly, they can all see one another when dialogue is needed.

The teacher introduces the lesson by explaining the learning objectives. These need to be referred to frequently throughout the lesson, so it may help to have them written on the board or OHP.

The objectives, crucially, will be expressed in terms of what the pupils will learn and not the activities they will do.

Beyond this starting point between half and two thirds of the lesson will typically be directed through strong and focused teaching.

This would include the introductory phase, direct teaching of new information, careful modelling of new skills or techniques and a plenary which draws together the main learning points.

Between one third to half of the lesson will be taken up by more pupil-centred activities including independent practice, paired or group work and, most importantly, dialogue and discussion.

The teacher directs and manages each of these phases but uses different skills and techniques for each.

The techniques used, however, are repeated and re-used frequently over time so that the pupils become familiar with the expectations of them and confident learners of the necessary methodologies.

During the main teaching phase of the lesson the teacher will explain new information or demonstrate and model new techniques.

The teacher will not rely solely upon the spoken word, but will use the board or OHP to record and structure the key points of what has been said.

Often the teacher will model the process of constructing a logical argument on the board, pointing out to the pupils both the use of factual evidence and appropriate linking words or phrases.

These may range from the very simple (such as "because" or "as a result") to the more complex (such as "some historians argue that" or "this contradicts the evidence of").

Questioning for comprehension will be a strong element of the central teaching phase. The teacher will expect pupils to respond to factual questions in full sentences, using the correct vocabulary.Very few one-word answers will be appropriate.

The teacher will insist on audibility, asking pupils to repeat sentences where necessary. The teacher will not routinely repeat or reinterpret inaudible answers as to do so would reinforce the notion, on the part of pupils, that they do not have to listen to their classmates' answers but only to the teacher.

Where more complex, speculative, answers are required the teacher will pause (often for about 5-7 seconds) to give all the pupils an opportunity to reflect. Rather than accept the first answer given, the teacher takes several alternative answers from different pupils.

The teacher does this without commenting or passing judgement on each answer as, to do so, discourages pupils from continuing to speculate. Once several answers have been heard, however, the teacher spends time teasing out the implications or contradictions in what has been said.

Often the board will be used to record, shape or structure the emerging argument because some pupils will continue to find the apparent acceptance of contradictory points confusing.

During the independent practice phase of the lesson a wide variety of activities is possible. This could include individual, paired or small group tasks. Importantly, however, the teacher will make clear the links between these tasks, the learning objectives of the lesson and the direct teaching that preceded the task.

The teacher will also make clear the expectation that pupils will, in their work, mirror the standard or the technique that the teacher modelled for them.
The teacher manages the whole class discussion phase very carefully.

Individual pupils or small groups will frequently be brought to the front of the class to present their findings. Where this happens, the teacher will begin with the most able or confident pupils so that those who are less confident will be able to see more clearly what is expected when they have to talk.

Because of the central importance of this part of the lesson the teacher will have established, over time, ground rules which deter other pupils from making negative or unhelpful comments.

At all times the teacher reinforces the need for pupils to speak audibly, in sentences and use appropriate vocabulary.

No one group is allowed to dominate discussion but pupils will be encouraged to comment on their classmates' contributions, for example by asking for clarification or suggesting alternative points.

Over time and in the classes where oral confidence has been developed, spontaneous discussions will probably take place.

The lesson concludes by refocusing on the learning objectives.

A variety of techniques are used for this ranging from direct teacher summary, through to inviting pupils to make reflective comments designed to assess whether or not the objectives have been met.